The Knitted Scogger & an Experiment in the Medieval Approach to Knitting

The Scoggers

…What is this?
A pair of knitted scoggers representative of the mid 1500's England, not to be confused with decorative sleeves. Decorative sleeves were generally longer and of finer workmanship. The more utilitarian scogger tended to be simpler in pattern and coarser in the knitting. Think of a leg warmer for your forearm, or the sleeve protectors worn by Victorian clerks.

…Where might you find scoggers pre-1600?
Most of the knitted scogger examples are from England. There are, however, some examples of professionally crafted sleeves which were imported from Italy for the nobility and upper levels of society. Again, those imports would be the more expensive and refined decorative sleeve.

…Are there pre-1600 examples of scoggers?
Rutt cites one from the Mary Rose, called a scogger. There was initial debate about if the knitted fragment cited by Rutt, might have been from a legging or the top of a sock. Further investigation by the Museum of London has ruled it to be made for an arm, and not a leg. From to quote the Mary Rose Archeological services. "Another knitted item recovered virtually complete is a scogger, a versatile sleeve rather like a modern legwarmer that could be worn either on the arm or lower leg." Another example is mentioned in the Coventry Leet Book.* *(mea culpa, I cannot find the quote)

…What were the materials used for the original scoggers?
The Mary Rose scogger mentioned in Rutt is made of worsted 2 ply wool.

Materials:

…What are the recreated scoggers made out of ?
Hand-spun, worsted wool from a Clun Forest sheep.

…Is the Clun Forest breed of sheep a period breed?
No, it's a modern breed derived from a Cotswold sheep. The Cotswold sheep would have been a period breed. But, as an aside, getting your hands on a 100% genetically and environmentally pure medieval sheep these days would be - to say the least - challenging. (Ryder, 494)

…Why use the Clun Forest wool if it isn't period?
The spinner who provided wool for this part of the project had the Clun Forest on hand, and it was already worked into singlets. The wool only had to be plied to make the knitting wool. So in the interest of time I chose to use the Clun Forest.

…What is the difference between worsted and woolen yarn?
The difference in a worsted and in a woolen yarn comes from how the wool fiber is prepared before it is spun. In worsted yarn the fibers are combed until the majority of them run in the same direction. In a woolen yarn the fibers are carded, which removes the vegetable matter, same as in combing, but does little to direct all of the fibers into the same orientation. The result is, that since most of the fibers in worsted yarn run in the same direction, that worsted yarn has a flatter, smoother surface which can give more sheen than the woolen. Woolen yarn, which has fibers in many directions appears fuzzier, and is more likely to felt together.

…So, why use worsted instead of woolen yarn?
The use of worsted is supported by the extant fragment from the Mary Rose. It also makes sense that a garment that would be exposed to harsh conditions and hard wear should be made of the stronger skinned worsted yarn.

Stitches:

…What stitches were used for knitting pre-1600 in England?
There is evidence of both the knit-wise stitch and purl-wise stitch being used in English knitting by the 1500s. The use of both knit and purl may even be earlier, but at the moment I haven't specifically looked into that. The patterns of diapering that are present in portraits and on extant objects support the use of both knit and purl to create decorative patterns.

…What is the stitch for the main part of the scogger?
The majority of the scogger is executed in stockinette stitch. Stockinette stitch is the unbroken use of knit stitch when working in the round. All of the stitches are formed in the same direction knit-wise. This produces a very flat surface, with a minimum of space between the stitches.

…Where did this decorative pattern come from?
They might well be work wear, but that doesn't mean that the scoggers have to be painfully plain. So looking for appropriate decorations I saw the stockings of Sir Christopher Hatton in the portrait by an unknown artist to be covered with a diamond pattern of purling. I chose to simplify the pattern into a row of diamonds that chased each other about the sleeve at two points.

…What is this band at the top and wrist of the sleeve?
This band is made of five rows of garter stitch. The garter stitch top helps to hold the garment in place and prevent it from rolling down the limb. An example of what happens when a stocking or garment is not given this band at an edge is captured in the portrait of the "Gentleman in Pink" by Moroni ca. 1540s. If you would like to argue about whether his hose are knitted or not, I would urge you to see the canvas in person. You can see that the artist has depicted the individual verticals of the knitting.

…What is garter stitch and was it used prior to 1600?
Garter stitch is alternating rows of knit and purl. One row of knit and one row of purl together equal one row of garter stitch. This method of finishing a garment at the top was used on the stockings of Eleanora d' Toledo. It is also used on the fragment discussed in Rutt.

Method for calculating the pattern:

The dimensions for the arm that the scogger was to fit were as follows:
Diameter of wrist: 6.0"
Diameter below elbow: 11.5"
Diameter above elbow: 12"
Length from wrist to elbow: 12"

Determining the diameter of the wrist opening :  8" is too close to get over the hand without significant stretching,  9" appears too large, but it will allow the hand through comfortably. So compromising between the two points I chose to make the wrist opening approximately 8.5" in diameter.

Determining the diameter of the upper (elbow) opening: Above the elbow I chose to use an opening of 14" in diameter to accommodate the extra bulk of under dress and chemise.

Determining the length of the scogger from elbow to wrist: Although the measurement from elbow to wrist was 12" I wanted to allow the top of the scogger to extend just past the elbow so that it did not rest in the crease of the elbow. I also wanted to provide length to accommodate some light fulling of the sleeve which would occur with repeated washing ans wear. So to accommodate my plans I decided to extend the length of the scogger 2" past the natural length of the elbow, so the overall length of the scogger became 14".

Adding a decorative feature to the scogger added 1 º inch to the length for the top pattern and 1 inch to the length for the lower pattern. So the overall length of the scogger was now 16 º inches.

I did not want the scogger rolling down my arm, but instead I wanted it to remain firmly in place once donned. To do this I chose to use rows of garter stitch as seen in the scogger recovered from the Mary Rose, and as used in the stockings of Eleanor d'Toledo.

By studying photos of the Mary Rose scogger I determined that between 4-6 rows of garter stitch would be appropriate for the top of my recreation. I chose to use 5 rows of garter stitch at both the top and wrist opening of each scogger.

What gauge did you use?
I knitted a test swatch to ascertain the gauge (number of stitches and rows) per inch produced by a set of American Size 2 knitting needles. I arrived at a relatively consistent gauge of 7 stitches and 10 rows per inch.

Did you use a pattern?

Yes, I developed a pattern to produce the scoggers, and abandoned my usual method of knitting in favor of some experimentation. To find out more read about the experiment. The pattern for the scoggers is on the next page.

Why is one scogger bigger than the other?

Aha, clever of you to notice this. But again to find out more you have to know what I was trying to test. So read on about the experiment.

Why is this not dyed?

In my research on simple items of utilitarian use I came across other items that were undyed. One example is a pair of child's mittens that are undyed, and the only decoration on them was a band of darker wool knitted into the wrist of the mitten. (Museum of London, Item #A1989) So, in light of this information, I chose to leave my scoggers undyed.

The Pattern Used to Knit the Scoggers

From the initial measurements taken for the arm that the finished product was to fit, and by working from a gauge of 7 stitches and 10 rows to the inch, I devised the following pattern. I wanted a close fitting finished product with no rolling at the top opening or at the cuff. I needed the scogger to have a gradual taper from the widest point at the top to the narrowest point at the wrist.

Starting at the top of the scogger.
… Cast on 98 stitches.
… Knit 5 rows of garter stitch without any decreases. (1 row of garter stitch = 1 row knit + 1 row purl)
… To achieve the taper, on every 4th row, decrease by 1 stitch by knitting 2 stitches together.
… When you reach 90 stitches knit 2 rounds then insert the large diamond pattern in purl stitch. Do not decrease within the pattern. This will add 1 º inches in length.
… At the end of the diamond pattern knit 2 rounds then on the 3rd round decrease by 1 stitch by knitting 2 stitches together.
… On your next round start counting again to form the taper, on every 4th row, decrease by 1 stitch by knitting 2 stitches together.
… When you reach 66 stitches knit 2 rounds then insert the small diamond pattern in purl stitch. Do not decrease within the pattern. This will add 1 inch in length.
… At the end of the diamond pattern knit 2 rounds then on the 3rd round decrease by 1 stitch by knitting 2 stitches together.
… On your next round start counting again to form the taper, on every 4th row, decrease by 1 stitch by knitting 2 stitches together.
… When you reach 60 stitches, knit 2 rounds. No decrease is made.
… Knit 5 rows of garter stitch without any decreases. (1 row of garter stitch = 1 row knit + 1 row purl) < BR > … Cast off your stitches knit wise.  Finish the end by weaving into the cast off.

The pattern was designed to be knit at 7 stitches and 10 rows to the inch to produce a scogger with a 14" circumference at the top, a 8.5" circumference at the wrist and 16 º" in overall length.

The Experiment:

Along with the actual production of this pair of scoggers I was testing one of my favorite theories of medieval knitting. Many times I have been asked to tell someone what gauge and which pattern I used to produce an item. Often I am afraid that I frustrate folks with my standard answer, "Knit it as big around as you need to for as long as you need to and shape it as you go." I was not taught to knit to a pattern. Instead, when I learned to knit, I learned how to shape both in and out, and how to carry a pattern across that shaping. And I believe that this is the way that medieval women knitted, without patterns, but instead using a set of standards that they could adapt to any project as they needed.

There are several factors of medieval life that support this theory. The ideas that shape this theory are drawn from many diverse sources both social and economic. Major contributors to this theory come from primary cooking sources, archeological finds, and laws on the knitting industry.

Primary cooking sources may seem to be an odd place to begin a discussion on knitting. But indeed, they are the logical place to start, because like a knitting pattern, cookbooks are written directions to produce a specific result. So how were cookbooks written in the years pre-1600?

Let us start by looking at Valoise Armstrong's translation of Das Kuchbuch der Sabrina Welserin. This cookbook by a German woman was written in the mid 1500's. It contains several typical features of a medieval cookbook. One feature that is familiar to the modern cook but frequently missing from medieval cooking directions is the list of specific measures required for each ingredient in the recipe. Instead the medieval reader was given directions that may seem impossibly vague to the modern reader.

For example in Das Kuchbuch der Sabrina Welserin in the recipe titled "How to cook a wild boar's head, also how to prepare a sauce for it" the ingredients are listed as "a little fat", "a small spoonful of wheat flour", "good wine" and "good cherry syrup." Specific directions are also at a minimum. No time is given for the boiling of the boars head, no amount is given for the addition of the wine or syrup, no indication of the heat or time for reducing the sauce is given, the cook is left to their own judgment. This observation is verified by the last line of the recipe, "And taste it, however it seems good to you, make it so."

From Das Kuchbuch der Sabrina Welserin

A wild boar's head should be boiled well in water and, when it is done, laid on a grate and basted with wine, then it willbe thought to have been cooked in wine. Afterwards make a black or yellow sauce with it. First, when you would make a black sauce, you should heat up a little fat and brown a small spoonful of wheat flour in the fat and after that put good wine into it and good cherry syrup, so that it becomes black, and sugar, ginger, pepper, cloves and cinnamon, grapes, raisins and finely chopped almonds. And taste it, however it seems good to you, make it so.

It can be supposed that the medieval knitter was in a similar position. And that the they were accustomed to using their own judgment in the production of their work.

Unfortunately, unlike cooking enthusiasts, there have been no discoveries of knitting manuals in libraries or forgotten corners of historic homes. Indeed even in needlework manuals of the late 1500's and early 1600's there is very little emphasis on knitting. Instead many of the manuals focus on various lace and needle lace techniques. With the written record being so scarce researchers of knitting are almost solely reliant on archeological finds. This has also been, until recently, an area of vast frustration.

Archeological proof of knitting is elusive. There are comparatively few remnants of pre-1600 knitted items in collections around the world. In these collections the extraordinary samples of skill and workmanship made for rich or noble clients outnumber the samples of what might have been worn by the common man. Even more puzzling is that though examples of the craft in remnants have been pulled from digs, there is a dearth of tools. Tools for the craft appear not to have survived. Until recently, there had been no knitting needles recovered from archeological excavations.

Exciting news for researchers of medieval and pre-modern textiles came in 2002. The York Archaeological Trust for Excavation and Research published Volume17 of their series "The Archaeology of York: the Small Finds." This volume describes the first pre-1600 knitting needles to be found in England.

The items that caught the attention of researchers were item numbers 14697 and 14698. The items were both slender rods with a taper to a rounded tip at each end. They were made of a copper alloy and both measure 180 mm in length. One needle is 2.6 mm in diameter, which corresponds to today's British size 12 knitting needle (#14697). The other needle (#14698) is smaller in diameter, measuring 1.9 mm and corresponding to the modern British knitting needle size 14.

They were found together on the suspected floor of a tenement in an excavation layer that is dated to the late 14th century. Articles found in the vicinity of the needles and on the same level confirm the date. One question that needs to be addressed is do these needles of different diameters indicate that there were two sets of needles of different sizes, or are they a pair of lost needles from the same set? The fact that the needles are of the same length is interesting, but far more information is needed before a conclusion that they were a pair can be reached.

Some people may object to the theory that the two needles were a pair or that they belonged to the same set and they would point to the even sizing of stitches and tension in extant examples of knitting to corroborate their argument. Detractors of the "set idea" would argue that such even stitch size cannot be accomplished with two needles of unequal diameter. However, it must be remembered that as time passes the tension throughout a piece of knitting equalizes. Also washing and wear help to equalize the tension of the yarn and stitch size throughout a knitted garment. So, with the current information it is impossible to determine if these needles are of two sets or one.

If the needles do belong to one set then the use of a set of directions that relies on a specific gauge would be impossible. Because one needle would produce one size stitch and the other needle would produce a stitch of a different size. The gauge would change with the different needles. The result would be that the knitter would not have a consistent stitch size in either width or rows to base their work on. However, because a knitted fabric does equilibrate over time, with wear and washing, then using a "size as you go" method works. Even with two distinctly different sized needles the average of the stitches in the garment will not change.

Even if there were no variation in the needles used in a project there are other factors which must be considered. A pattern for knitting, especially a modern pattern, relies heavily on the establishment and consistency of a specific gauge. The gauge is not only influenced by the needles and the knitter, but also by the yarn that is being used. If the yarn varies in thickness then the gauge is not reliable, and so your pattern does not yield consistent results.

Supporters of the pattern theory might argue that medieval spinners were much more consistent in their product than a modern recreational spinner. But, looking at the laws of the day it is apparent that the quality of yarn used in the knitting industry was an issue of concern. The Coventry Leet from 1514 addresses the issue of the penalties for inconsistent product supplied from the spinners of the town to the weaving industry. (Leet, p. 639) Although this does not address the knitters specifically, it does let us know that inconsistent yarn was a problem that was faced.

Other information that can be gleaned from the Coventry Leet concerning the craft of knitting is found in the Easter and Michelmas Leets of 1520. Here it is stated "Also that noo person of the Craft teche noo poyntes of the Craft to noo person save to hys prentiz and hys wyf or 100 s. fine, half to the mayor, half to his craft." (Leet, p. 673) It can be no doubt that a one hundred shilling fine was a stiff penalty to be paid for letting the information on knitting pass beyond the confines of the guild. So the publication of patterns, at least in the 1500's, is heavily discouraged.

So the medieval knitter faced many obstacles to the production of a stable gauge that could be used in a specific set of instructions. The medieval knitter would have to find matching needles to produce a standard gauge. So far archeological evidence throws no definitive light on this situation. The medieval knitter would have to find uniform yarn needed to produce a standard gauge. Laws from the time period suggest that the uniform yarn we take for granted in the 21st century was not easily obtained. And lastly, the availability of a pattern would have to be present. Again, laws and penalties of the day suggest that such information was closely guarded.

So I propose that the medieval knitter did not rely on detailed patterns. In a time when strict standards could not be enforced for spinning a strict detailed pattern would prove fruitless. Instead I believe that information passed from person to person via verbal instruction. And, that those instructions were given in the form of guidelines that the knitter would apply to the project using their own knowledge and judgement. In other words, "Put on as many stitches as you need, knit as far as you need to go, and shape it along the way."

How this experiment was conducted.

I knit a square of the yarn I would be using to experiment with the gauge. From this I assumed a stable gauge of 7 stitches to the inch, and 10 rows to the inch. I chose to limit my variables. I used a standard set of five double pointed US size 2 needles. I devised a pattern based upon the gauge of the test square and the measurements of my arm.

The only variables left were knitting tension, which I could control, and the yarn, an element I could not control. In this project hand-spun 2 ply yarn was used.

The scoggers were knitted to a specific pattern. The pattern is included at the end of the previous section: The Scoggers. Had the pattern been executed with perfectly uniform materials to a gauge of 7 stitches and 10 rows to the inch then a product with a 14" circumference at the top, a 8.5" circumference at the wrist and 16 º" in overall length would have been created.

The result that was achieved is quite different.

Scogger A, the smaller, is 12 ‡ inches at the top, 8 inches at the wrist and 17 æ inches in length. Scogger B, the larger is, 12 º inches at the top, 8 inches at the wrist and 19 inches in length. And in comparison, one scogger is just over 1 inch longer than the other. The larger scogger is also visibly coarser.

The primary reason for this variation, I suspect, lies in the yarn. I examined samples of the yarn and found that one section of the skein was slightly larger in diameter than other areas of the skein. Two samples of the yarn used, and taken from the scoggers, are attached so that you can see for yourself the slight variation in the yarn. Now a small variation is of little consequence in many applications, but in knitting any small variance in the yarn is compounded as more and more rows of the yarn are added to the item. So as the item grows, so does your variance from your intended target, plus or minus.

Partial Translation of Das Kuchbuch der Sabrina Welserin
Translator: Valoise Armstrong's
Provided by Cariadoc's Miscellany

In the name of the Holy Trinity I, Sabrina Welserin, begin this cookbook. God grant me His holy grace and wisdom and understanding and judgment with which I through His Holy will live here in this time and with Him forever. Amen. anno 1553

5 How to cook a wild boar's head, also how to prepare a sauce for it.

A wild boar's head should be boiled well in water and, when it is done, laid on a grate and basted with wine, then it will be thought to have been cooked in wine. Afterwards make a black or yellow sauce with it. First, when you would make a black sauce, you should heat up a little fat and brown a small spoonful of wheat flour in the fat and after that put good wine into it and good cherry syrup, so that it becomes black, and sugar, ginger, pepper, cloves and cinnamon, grapes, raisins and finely chopped almonds. And taste it, however it seems good to you, make it so.

A Selected Bibliography

Anonymous. Portrait of Sir Christopher Hatton.

The Archaeology of York Volume 17: The Small Finds. The Archaeology of York. Ed. P.V. Addyman. 1 ed. Vol. 17. York: Council for British Archaeology, 2002.

The Coventry Leet Book or Mayor's Register. Transcr. Mary Dormer Harris. 1 ed. Vol. 1. 4 vols. soho, London: Kegan Paul TrenchTrubner & Co. Ltd., 1907.

Child's pair of mittens. (ca. late 1500s) Museum of London #A1989.

Crowfoot, Elisabeth, Frances Pritchard, Kay Staniland. Textiles and Clothing C. 1150 - C. 1450. Medieval Finds from Excavations in London:4. London: HMSO, 1992.

Mary Rose Archeological Services at

Moroni, Giovanni Batisttista. Gentleman in Pink. 1564.

Rutt, Richard. A History of Hand Knitting. Loveland, Colorado: Interweave Press, 1987.

Ryder, M.L. Sheep and Man. 1 ed. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1983.

Staniland, Kay. "Getting There, Got It: Archaeological Textiles and Tailoring in London." The Age of Transition: the Archaeology of English Culture 1400-1600. Ed. David Gaimster and Paul Stamper. 1 ed. London: Oxbow Books, 1997. 263.

Welserin, Sabrina. Das Kuchbuch der Sabrina Welserin. Trans. Valoise Armstrong. Provided by Cariadoc's Miscellany. 2003.